This research expounds on Harter’s (1978) earlier paper about competence motivation. Harter cites in previous works (Harter, 1985a, 1985b) that a domain-specific approach in understanding children’s overall sense of value is most appropriate. She argues that a single codified score of self-worth does not accurately reflect the global value children feel about themselves. In the paper, she attempted to determine not just the antecedents of such a construct from childhood through adulthood, but also which sources were the most powerful predictors of self-worth. This research was primarily focused in the academic realm of the classroom. But, the concepts learned herein have relevance to the physical realm. An additional study explained after the present theory will elucidate findings similar to Harter’s in the physical realm.
The basis of this theory stems from works by James (1892) and Cooley (1902). In brief, the former suggests that the sense of self-worth is dependent upon the extent to which children feel they have succeeded in executing a goal (i.e., children feel good about themselves when they accomplish a goal or surpass it, or they feel bad about themselves if they fall short of the accomplishment). The latter research suggests that the sense of self-worth depends upon children’s perception of how significant others collectively judge them (i.e., children feel good about themselves when they feel that their parents and friends think well of them, but feel poorly if they feel estranged from their parents and friends).
Harter posits that these two schools of thought are not mutually exclusive, but combined, provide a clearer picture of the process children experience as they assess their self-worth. Scores for the two constructs were developed: James’s Competence/Importance Discrepancy (competence minus importance) and Cooley’s Social Support/Positive Regard (perceived parental regard plus perceived peer regard). These were tested against the effects on children’s self-worth in the systems of affect (a continuum of emotion between perceived depression and cheerfulness) and motivation (a continuum of energy levels toward age-appropriate activities due to interest and desire).
The findings showed that the combined scores of both the James and Cooley constructs significantly affect childrens’ perceptions of self-worth. Further, the findings showed a close correlation between childrens’ self-worth and their degree of happiness or mood. This, in turn, affected their motivation. It should be noted that self-worth does have a limited impact on motivation, regardless of how happy or sad children feel. As such, children who typically felt a sense of value, and rated high in self-worth, had more positive feelings which had a positive impact on their motivation to engage in an activity; the opposite was also true. As is common in sport psychology research, a model was created to graphically describe these associations.
Harter’s discussion of the model then proceeded to address five issues, comparing children in two groups: elementary school- "older childhood" (grades 3-5) and middle school- "younger adolescents (grades 6-8).
The first issue focuses primarily on the potential variability between the age groups. The results showed very little variability in the sense of global self-worth, in each of the four facets of the model (James scores, Cooley scores, affect, and motivation).
The second issue investigated the cumulative nature of the model. It showed that childrens’ global self-worth scores increased with increases in either their sense of accomplishment at an important task, or the greater support they received from significant people, or both. This suggests that both their sense of competency and external support play an important role in their overall sense of self-worth. Harter does caution us to note that the study is based on what children think is important and that social component will likely change over time, typically due to greater emphasis on peer relations.
The third issue attempts to determine which competence domains and social sources, in particular, are the most powerful predictors of self-worth. Five specific competence domains were investigated in each age group: athletic competence, behavioral conduct, physical appearance, scholastic competence, and social acceptance. In both age groups, physical appearance was the most significant predictor of self-worth. But, the gap between physical appearance and social acceptance, the second highest predictor in both age groups, was significantly less in the older age group. Thus, it should not be surprising to see younger adolescents desiring to spend more time socially. Interestingly, athletic competence scored fourth in both age groups, though Harter does not provide a reason as to why.
Concerning the variable of social support, Harter’s research shows a higher correlation of self-worth for parents and classmates than with friends and teachers. This is true for both age groups. An observer of the research might be surprised to see parents and peers rated higher than friends, but acceptance may be forthcoming when considering the change in roles parents experience with their children during this time. Children still recognize the need for parental guidance as experiences become more diverse and complex.
The fourth issue seeks to determine the correlation between self-worth and affect or mood. Since these variables are highly correlated, the current research sought to determine whether these variables represent two separate constructs that have significant meaning to children’s concept of self-worth. Or, do these variables actually correlate because they describe the same construct and are not differentiated in the minds of children?
The findings showed, conclusively, that children are able to differentiate the two constructs. Thus, a reasonable conclusion can be made that the way in which children view their self-worth impacts on how they feel about a given activity and by extension, their motivation to continue to participate in it.
The final issue tried to determine the effect of social support, perceived competence, mood, and interest among younger children (ages 4-7), where the concept of self-worth does not exist. Harter wanted to determine if more domain-specific self-perceptions mediated a link between social support, mood, and interest. The research shows that young children take cues from the immediate social context as to their sense of competency and mood during that interaction (i.e., how children feel in a familial context is determined by their sense of acceptance by their parents).
In a 1999 study, A.L. Smith investigated the correlation of friendship and peer acceptance perceptions with self-worth and affect in relation to physical activity in children between twelve and fifteen years old. This research found similar results to Harter’s research wherein important predictors of cognitive motivation and physical activity are perceptions of peer acceptance, physical self-worth, and affective responses to physical activity (i.e., preferring challenging physical activities or the amount of physical activity).
The basis of this theory stems from works by James (1892) and Cooley (1902). In brief, the former suggests that the sense of self-worth is dependent upon the extent to which children feel they have succeeded in executing a goal (i.e., children feel good about themselves when they accomplish a goal or surpass it, or they feel bad about themselves if they fall short of the accomplishment). The latter research suggests that the sense of self-worth depends upon children’s perception of how significant others collectively judge them (i.e., children feel good about themselves when they feel that their parents and friends think well of them, but feel poorly if they feel estranged from their parents and friends).
Harter posits that these two schools of thought are not mutually exclusive, but combined, provide a clearer picture of the process children experience as they assess their self-worth. Scores for the two constructs were developed: James’s Competence/Importance Discrepancy (competence minus importance) and Cooley’s Social Support/Positive Regard (perceived parental regard plus perceived peer regard). These were tested against the effects on children’s self-worth in the systems of affect (a continuum of emotion between perceived depression and cheerfulness) and motivation (a continuum of energy levels toward age-appropriate activities due to interest and desire).
The findings showed that the combined scores of both the James and Cooley constructs significantly affect childrens’ perceptions of self-worth. Further, the findings showed a close correlation between childrens’ self-worth and their degree of happiness or mood. This, in turn, affected their motivation. It should be noted that self-worth does have a limited impact on motivation, regardless of how happy or sad children feel. As such, children who typically felt a sense of value, and rated high in self-worth, had more positive feelings which had a positive impact on their motivation to engage in an activity; the opposite was also true. As is common in sport psychology research, a model was created to graphically describe these associations.
Harter’s discussion of the model then proceeded to address five issues, comparing children in two groups: elementary school- "older childhood" (grades 3-5) and middle school- "younger adolescents (grades 6-8).
The first issue focuses primarily on the potential variability between the age groups. The results showed very little variability in the sense of global self-worth, in each of the four facets of the model (James scores, Cooley scores, affect, and motivation).
The second issue investigated the cumulative nature of the model. It showed that childrens’ global self-worth scores increased with increases in either their sense of accomplishment at an important task, or the greater support they received from significant people, or both. This suggests that both their sense of competency and external support play an important role in their overall sense of self-worth. Harter does caution us to note that the study is based on what children think is important and that social component will likely change over time, typically due to greater emphasis on peer relations.
The third issue attempts to determine which competence domains and social sources, in particular, are the most powerful predictors of self-worth. Five specific competence domains were investigated in each age group: athletic competence, behavioral conduct, physical appearance, scholastic competence, and social acceptance. In both age groups, physical appearance was the most significant predictor of self-worth. But, the gap between physical appearance and social acceptance, the second highest predictor in both age groups, was significantly less in the older age group. Thus, it should not be surprising to see younger adolescents desiring to spend more time socially. Interestingly, athletic competence scored fourth in both age groups, though Harter does not provide a reason as to why.
Concerning the variable of social support, Harter’s research shows a higher correlation of self-worth for parents and classmates than with friends and teachers. This is true for both age groups. An observer of the research might be surprised to see parents and peers rated higher than friends, but acceptance may be forthcoming when considering the change in roles parents experience with their children during this time. Children still recognize the need for parental guidance as experiences become more diverse and complex.
The fourth issue seeks to determine the correlation between self-worth and affect or mood. Since these variables are highly correlated, the current research sought to determine whether these variables represent two separate constructs that have significant meaning to children’s concept of self-worth. Or, do these variables actually correlate because they describe the same construct and are not differentiated in the minds of children?
The findings showed, conclusively, that children are able to differentiate the two constructs. Thus, a reasonable conclusion can be made that the way in which children view their self-worth impacts on how they feel about a given activity and by extension, their motivation to continue to participate in it.
The final issue tried to determine the effect of social support, perceived competence, mood, and interest among younger children (ages 4-7), where the concept of self-worth does not exist. Harter wanted to determine if more domain-specific self-perceptions mediated a link between social support, mood, and interest. The research shows that young children take cues from the immediate social context as to their sense of competency and mood during that interaction (i.e., how children feel in a familial context is determined by their sense of acceptance by their parents).
In a 1999 study, A.L. Smith investigated the correlation of friendship and peer acceptance perceptions with self-worth and affect in relation to physical activity in children between twelve and fifteen years old. This research found similar results to Harter’s research wherein important predictors of cognitive motivation and physical activity are perceptions of peer acceptance, physical self-worth, and affective responses to physical activity (i.e., preferring challenging physical activities or the amount of physical activity).