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Information sources used to judge domain-specific competence
In keeping with the notion of age-relatedness, judgment of domain-specific competence sources vary from middle and late childhood to adolescence. Horn (2003) suggests four developmental trends seen in the research about such source variations:
As children get older, they are better able to differentiate specific factors that can lead to changes in the assessment of competence (Horn & Amorose, 1998). As an example, younger children typically view coaches, peers, and parents as one integrated factor to aid in their competence assessment ("Other People" in Ages 6 - 9 in Figure 1). However, older children typically view each separately as part of the assessment. As such, older children will be able to make a more accurate assessment of competency because they are better able to assess the nature of the praise or criticism from different sources.
- Greater ability to differentiate factors
- An increase in the integration of various sources
- Moving from concrete sources, to more abstract sources
- Greater internalization of competence and performance standards
As children get older, they are better able to differentiate specific factors that can lead to changes in the assessment of competence (Horn & Amorose, 1998). As an example, younger children typically view coaches, peers, and parents as one integrated factor to aid in their competence assessment ("Other People" in Ages 6 - 9 in Figure 1). However, older children typically view each separately as part of the assessment. As such, older children will be able to make a more accurate assessment of competency because they are better able to assess the nature of the praise or criticism from different sources.
In addition, as children become more aware of the differences between task difficulty, ability, and effort, their assessments move from wins and losses (concrete) to personal performance (abstract) as part of the win or loss (Horn, 2003). Notice in Table 1, below, how 'Evaluative Feedback' by others is seen in only two factors (2 and 4) in the younger age group, while it is seen in four factors (3, 5, 6, and 8) in the older age group. Another example of a movement from concrete to abstract sources is seen in the increased use of personal goals, self-motivation, and enjoyment (Horn et al., 1993; Watkins & Montgomery, 1989).
Horn and Amorose (1998) provide a Table illustrating the differences between the age groups:
Table 1
Younger Age Group: 8-14 Years (Horn & Hasbrook, 1986)
Factor 1: Peer Comparison
(Comparison with teammates and opponents: Game
performance statistics)
Factor 2: Evaluative Feedback (Coaches, Peers, Spectators)
Factor 3: Internal Information
(Perceived Effort; Skill Improvement; Speed/Ease of Learning)
Factor 4: Evaluative Feedback (Parents)
Factor 5: Game Outcome (winning/losing)
Factor 6: Attraction Toward Sport
Older Age Group: 14-18 Years (Horn et al., 1993)
Factor 1: Internal Information
(Skill Improvement/Perceived Effort; Pre-/Postgame Feelings)
Factor 2: Competitive Outcomes
(Game Outcome; Game Performance Statistics)
Factor 3: Evaluative Feedback (Parents)
Factor 4: Peer Comparison
(Comparison with Teammates and Opponents)
Factor 5: Evaluative Feedback (Spectators)
Factor 6: Evaluative Feedback (Coach)
Factor 7: Speed/Ease of Learning
Factor 8: Evaluative Feedback (Peers)
Factor 9: Achievement of Self-Set Goals
Factor 10: Attraction Toward Sport
Horn and Amorose (1998) provide a Table illustrating the differences between the age groups:
Table 1
Younger Age Group: 8-14 Years (Horn & Hasbrook, 1986)
Factor 1: Peer Comparison
(Comparison with teammates and opponents: Game
performance statistics)
Factor 2: Evaluative Feedback (Coaches, Peers, Spectators)
Factor 3: Internal Information
(Perceived Effort; Skill Improvement; Speed/Ease of Learning)
Factor 4: Evaluative Feedback (Parents)
Factor 5: Game Outcome (winning/losing)
Factor 6: Attraction Toward Sport
Older Age Group: 14-18 Years (Horn et al., 1993)
Factor 1: Internal Information
(Skill Improvement/Perceived Effort; Pre-/Postgame Feelings)
Factor 2: Competitive Outcomes
(Game Outcome; Game Performance Statistics)
Factor 3: Evaluative Feedback (Parents)
Factor 4: Peer Comparison
(Comparison with Teammates and Opponents)
Factor 5: Evaluative Feedback (Spectators)
Factor 6: Evaluative Feedback (Coach)
Factor 7: Speed/Ease of Learning
Factor 8: Evaluative Feedback (Peers)
Factor 9: Achievement of Self-Set Goals
Factor 10: Attraction Toward Sport